Supporting Bosnia on the Way to the European Union
One and a half year ago the European Union (EU) took over from NATO the responsibility for the stabilisation force in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Operation ALTHEA is the largest military operation under EU command. But it’s more than that: It is part of a comprehensive endeavour to give Bosnia and Herzegovina a perspective for EU membership.
On December 2nd 2004, in the presence of EU High Representative Javier Solana and NATO Secretary General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer, the EU took over from NATO the responsibility for a stabilisation force in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH).
The ceremony at Butmir Camp in Sarajevo marked the end of a successful NATO mission and the beginning of one of the most ambitious operations within the framework of the European Security and Defence Policy.
With nine years in BiH NATO has brought a significant degree of stability to the country: When the alliance started to deploy its troops after the conclusion of the Dayton agreement in 1995, more than 60,000 soldiers were necessary to prevent the conflicting parties from taking up arms again. At the end of 2004 the stabilisation force in BiH had shrunk to 7,000 soldiers.
A Robust Mission
The role of international forces in preserving the stability of the country is, however, still vital. State structures in BiH are still fragile and reconciliation between the ethnic groups is far from complete. Therefore, the EU has demonstrated from the first day that it would not compromise on security. EUFOR has maintained equivalent force levels with the latest SFOR. And as before, the armed forces main task is to provide deterrence and to provide a stable environment for the population. "We are generally well received by the people in BiH," says Lieutenant Colonel Peter Henn, a German communication officer in Sarajevo.
Indeed, EUFOR invests a lot in outreach activities: Since last year 16 Liaison and Observation Teams have been deployed throughout the country. They consist of a handful of soldiers who live and work in the cities where they have been sent. "The teams serve as focal points for the public and the regional and local administration," says Peter Henn, "But they are also important sources of information for the mission’s command." In addition, EUFOR has assisted in a number of operations in the fight against organised crime - an issue, which is today probably posing the most dangerous threat for the country. And, wherever possible, EUFOR leaves the responsibility to the BiH authorities. Local police and the Ministry of Interior today organise even weapons collection, formerly a core activity of the stabilisation force. "We are there to monitor and to help whenever necessary," says Peter Henn about EUFOR’s role in BiH.
Reaffirming EU’s Responsibility for the Region
For the EU the Operation ALTHEA marks a major step in the consolidation of its common security and defence policy. The biggest long-term donor in the Balkan region, the EU takes over full responsibility for the stability in its immediate neighbourhood with military and police missions as well. And EUFOR demonstrates for the first time the ability of the EU to carry out large scale crisis management operations. With 7,000 soldiers and contingents from 22 EU member states and eleven third countries, EUFOR is the most complex military operation conducted under EU leadership. In performing this demanding mission, the EU draws on NATO common assets and capabilities under the "Berlin-Plus" arrangements finalised in March 2003, providing for permanent relations and cooperation between the two organisations.
Such a mission requires a clear and efficient command, which remains under the political control of the Council of the European Union. Within this framework General John Reith (UK), NATO’s Deputy Supreme Allied Commander for Europe (D-SACEUR), has been appointed Operation Commander for Operation ALTHEA. The British Major General David Leakey (see interview) was appointed EU Force Commander in Sarajevo. On 6 December, Major General Gian Marco Chiarini of the Italian Army replaced Major General David Leakey (UK) as Commander of EUFOR. General Leakey had led EUFOR since the launch of the Operation in December 2004. Under the responsibility of the Council, the Political and Security Committee (PSC), a body were the 25 EU member states are represented at ambassador level, exercises political control and strategic direction of Operation ALTHEA. The PSC receives regular reports from the Chairman of the EU Military Committee regarding the conduct of the Operation. The EU Military Committee (EUMC) monitors the proper execution of the Operation.
EU and NATO also co-operate on the ground in BiH. Some 150 NATO officers are still working in Sarajevo. They assist BiH in its military reform and take part in the search for war criminals indicted by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY). The EU and NATO Headquarters are co-located.
A Step Towards European Integration
Whereas EUFOR’s main task is to provide a stable and secure environment, its objectives reach further: The mission aims to support a future transfer of political responsibility from the international community to the BiH political authorities. And EUFOR should help to bring BiH closer to the European Union, with the long-term objective to provide BiH with a perspective for EU membership.
To reflect the EU’s growing involvement in BiH, the High Representative under the Dayton/Paris agreements, Paddy Ashdown, was also appointed European Union Special Representative (EUSR) in BiH to oversee and coordinate the civil and military assistance of the EU actors in BiH. The EU has developed a structured approach to bring BiH, as well as other Western Balkans countries, closer to the EU: the Stabilisation and Association Process. Since 2003 the EU Commission prepares a yearly study on the progress the country has made in preparing for a Stabilisation and Association Agreement (SAA) with the EU.
The negotiations for such an agreement, which is a further step on the way to future EU membership, were launched on 25 November 2005. There has been encouraging progress in a number of key issues recently. In September the two political entities of the country, the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska, agreed on a long debated military reform. In 2006 a new multi-ethnic professional army under a central general staff and one defence ministry at the federal level will be created. The new army will replace the military structures of the BiH entities. At the beginning of October, the High Representative managed to broker an agreement on police reform, which will reorganise the police and their administrative boundaries along nonethnic lines. This paved the way for the opening of SAA negotiations with the EU.
A number of economic reforms have also been completed. Although unemployment is still just under 50 percent, privatisation of most former state companies has brought back some dynamics into the economy. In addition a tax reform and the introduction of a VAT as of beginning of 2006 will result in a more reliable funding of the central governmental structures.
However, a lot remains to be done. Two top war criminals - Radovan Karadzic and Ratko Mladic - are still to be caught and transferred to the international tribunal in The Hague. And there is the difficult question of comprehensive constitutional reform.
Bosnia might be on the way to become a stable partner in Europe but at this stage the country still relies on international assistance. With the launch of the ALTHEA Operation the EU gives a clear signal that it is ready to accept this responsibility.
Interview with Major General David Leakey, Commander of the stabilisation force (EUFOR) from December 2004 to December 2005.
Is Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) today a stable environment?
BiH has been stable for quite a few years. IFOR and SFOR did a very good job to bring back and then to maintain stability in BiH. EUFOR took over this core mission from SFOR to provide continued deterrence and reassurance. In other words, EUFOR guarantees the peace by deterring anyone who might try to upset it.
But, however stable BiH is, potential for instability still exists: the country is awash with weapons; the three constituent peoples do not all share a common vision of the future and that is evident in daily politics which are driven by nationalistic agendas; progress towards self-sustainability is significantly hindered by widespread organised crime and corruption which deeply intermingle with public life.
In accordance with its mandated tasks, EUFOR maintains a safe and secure environment in BiH including by playing an active role supporting the local authorities in fighting organised crime.
What has been the main achievement of EUFOR so far?
EUFOR successfully took over the international stabilisation mission from SFOR. EUFOR quickly established its credibility as a robust military force thanks to several high profile operations. In addition, a wide-ranging information campaign ensured EUFOR’s visibility throughout BiH. Reliable opinion polls have consistently confirmed that EUFOR’s credibility is high and no less than SFOR’s. Lastly, political leaders, no matter their party affiliation or ethnicity, have been very supportive of EUFOR noting, in particular, that the transition between SFOR and EUFOR did not result in a ’security gap’.
In addition, the successful takeover from SFOR enabled EUFOR to provide continued deterrence and reassurance. EUFOR has secured an environment where both the local authorities and the civilian international organisations can perform their duties, furthering the reform process in BiH. A stable environment is crucial to help BiH progress towards the EU.
Moreover, EUFOR has actively supported the local authorities in their fight against organised crime, a key obstacle for BiH on the road towards Europe. EUFOR has stiffened the resolve of the local authorities to tackle organised crime, it has deterred organised crime activities and it has contributed to changing people’s and politicians’ perception that nothing can be done about organised crime.
What were the main shortcomings?
Rather than shortcomings, I would speak about ’inevitable difficulties’ which we have had to tackle. I would mention two: - Supporting the fight against organised crime was a new task for everyone in EUFOR. Therefore we have had to learn from experience. We have constantly adapted our approach to achieve the best effect. We have significantly developed our relations with the local authorities in order to enhance their confidence and to stiffen their resolve to fight organised crime. This new task has been demanding for everyone, from the soldiers on the ground to myself. Nevertheless, all EUFOR personnel have performed extremely well in this regard.
- Running a multinational headquarters as efficiently as possible is more complex than a national one. We need to overcome practical challenges such as language, different cultures and modus operandi. But I believe that EUFOR has, again, risen to the challenge successfully.
What has changed for the soldiers as they work today under an EU flag instead of a NATO flag?
In practical, military terms much remains familiar, after all, as military men and women we strive always to operate to the highest professional standards, whichever flag we work under. Of course, I and my senior officers, as well as the Member States providing troops, have had to introduce and become familiar with some new EU high-level procedures, but this has not been an onerous task. Further, being part of a wider EU family in BiH has brought a welcome and valuable dimension to our military task.
How is EUFOR integrated in the EU strategy to bring BiH closer to the EU?
EUFOR is a member of what we call the ’EU family’ in BiH. The EU deploys a wide range of its instruments in BiH (from crisis management to technical assistance) including the military mission. We all share in the objective to help BiH to progress towards Europe (it’s not the only objective). The EU Special Representative in BiH is in charge of coordinating the activities of all the EU bodies in BiH and clearly we play a full part.
On the whole, I would say, based on my experience of COM EUFOR since December 2004, that EUFOR is fully integrated in the EU strategy for BiH.
The EUFOR-Operation ALTHEA
Mission and Mandate
On 2 December 2004, in a festive military ceremony, the EU assumed command of the Peacekeeping Force in Bosnia and Herzegovina hitherto controlled by NATO. Under international law, the operation is legitimised by the UNSCR 1575 (2004), which appointed EUFOR as the legal successor of SFOR. It is considered a robust Chapter VII operation under the UN Charter. The continuous military presence has so far contributed to a stable and secure environment in Bosnia. In addition to the military aspects of the mission the EU is also responsible for the civilian recovery aid and the police mission of EUPM. The structure of the operation has not been dramatically altered, however the area of operation is exclusively Bosnia and Herzegovina. Croatian territory is used only for the transit of troops and supply goods. A politically important point is that after the transfer of authority from SFOR to the EU the European overall package in Bosnia and Herzegovina has been completed.
Headquarters EUFOR is the same as HQ SFOR in Camp BUTMIR near Sarajevo Airport. Just as in SFOR, more than 80 percent of the soldiers are drawn from EU member states. Operation ALTHEA was established on then basis of the "Berlin plus Agreement". In order to avoid double structures the EU draws on the means and capabilities of NATO. The supreme commander of the Operation is the Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe (D-SACEUR.) Despite handing over responsibility for peacekeeping, NATO still plays a prominent role since Bosnia and Herzegovina is applying for future membership of NATO. Military and civilian NATO expert teams have been employed to help the Bosnian government in reforming its defence sector, and in preparing the country for membership of the Partnership for Peace (PfP) programme. The 150 NATO troops remaining in Bosnia and Herzegovina are housed on the same premises and in the same buildings as HQ EUFOR.
It is the mission of EUFOR to maintain a stable and secure environment in which Bosnia and Herzegovina can envisage her long term political objective of EU membership. This perspective of EU membership has become the most important driving force for reforms in South Eastern Europe. Therefore, the stabilisation of this region has been a main prerequisite for the security of Europe.
Role of EUFOR
UN Security Council Resolution 1575 (2004) of 22 November 2004 authorises EUFOR, the legal successor of SFOR, to implement the military aspects of the Dayton Peace Agreement. EUFOR operates under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, which refers to peace enforcement.
EUFOR has rules of engagement compatible with the accomplishment of its mission and self defence. According to the common "Action 2004/570/GASP of the EU Council of 12 July on the military operation of the EU in BiH", its main mission is to contribute to such secure conditions that are necessary for the stabilisation of peace.
The key objectives of EUFOR-ALTHEA are: - To deter and prevent the outbreak of fresh hostilities which would constitute a fresh threat to the peace; - To promote an atmosphere in which the peace process can prosper; - To contribute to a safe and secure environment required to accomplish the core tasks in the framework of the Mission Implementation Plan of the Office of the High Representative and of the Stabilisation and Association Process (SAP).
The Operation is to reinforce the comprehensive concept of the EU towards BiH and to support the progress in Bosnia with a view to integration into the EU.
Chain of Command in EUFOR
The Force consists of units of several services of different nations commanded by one common supreme commander, and is controlled by the EU’s Political and Security Committee answerable to the Council of the European Union. Overall military authority is vested in the Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe (D-SACEUR). EU Operations Headquarters is at Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE).
Troop-Contributing Nations
EUFOR consists of troops from 33 nations but not all of them are members of the EU. This places the Operation beyond a purely European project. So far the following nations have participated in EUFOR: EU-countries: Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden and United Kingdom; Non-EU countries, but NATO members: Bulgaria, Canada, Norway, Turkey and Romania; Non-NATO countries: Albania, Argentina, Chile, Morocco, New Zealand and Switzerland.
Civilian Aspects
For a durable peace in Bosnia it is of paramount importance that the civilian aspects of the Peace Agreement are implemented. By continuing the military aspects of the Peace Agreement the EU is making a contribution towards secure conditions conducive to the civilian and political restoration of the country.
The civilian aspects are carried out by the relevant international organisations and are coordinated by the High Representative, who at the same time is the EU’s special envoy. Considering the importance of the civilian aims of the Peace Agreement, the EU is making every effort to implement these aims. However, since EUFOR controls fewer troops, it must establish priorities where and when to deploy its assets. In order to remain effective, EUFOR and other organisations will keep planning and laying down objectives to make sure that the support of EUFOR is provided where it is most needed, for instance in battling organized crime.
Among the institutions and organisations that are to implement the civilian aspects of the Peace Agreement are: - The Office of the High Representative (OHR); - The European Union Police Mission (EUPM); - The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR); - The Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE); - The International Criminal Tribunal for Former Yugoslavia (ICTY).
In addition, a great number of Governmental and Non-governmental Organisations (GO/NGO) are also engaged in Bosnia and Herzegovina. EUFOR is continuing its support to the UNHCR for monitoring the return of refugees and displaced persons. Their return to the neutral zone was negotiated by the organisations concerned and by the signatories to the Peace Agreement. Measures are taken that only EUFOR weapons are permitted in the neutral zone. Exceptions require the expressed approval of the EUFOR Commander.
Under its mandate, EUFOR also supports the ICTY in The Hague. SFOR arrested 27 persons charged with war crimes since June 1997, and another three were killed in the course of arrest. EUFOR support also includes guaranteeing safety and logistic aid of ICTY investigation teams, and the monitoring of alleged mass graves.
Political Aims
In Bosnia, after the signing of the Dayton Peace Agreement of 21 November 1995, the international community started the largest and most ambitious peacekeeping mission in history. IFOR, SFOR and now EUFOR have been responsible for the military aspects of the agreement but the Office of the High Representative serves as the key coordinator for the civilian reconstruction. The United Nations have been put in charge of the repatriation of refugees, and OSCE has been tasked to take care of elections. More than 600 GOs and NGOs have participated in the consolidation of peace in and around Bosnia.
Despite these unprecedented efforts after the conclusion of the Paris Peace Treaty, Bosnia has remained a problem child of the international community. Local political parties are dominated by nationalist ideology that hampers the formation of the state. There remain serious problems with the return of refugees and displaced persons, and the organisation of political institutions. But in the long run the Bosnia and Herzegovina cannot be left as a dependent of the international community.
The conflict revealed the paralysis both of the United Nations and European Union. Only the slaughter at Srebrenica led to NATO intervention. The result was the Dayton Peace Agreement, which put an end to the fighting but at the same time confirmed the segregation of the country. Today Dayton appears to be a stumbling block on the way to the normalisation of the country. But the Dayton Agreement and the ensuing military operation were necessary to stop violence.
The EU and the international community learned valuable lessons during the war and have developed strategies and doctrine in which crisis management and crisis prevention rank much higher than ever before. In any case, the European peace mission EUFOR is certainly a step into the right direction.
___________________________________ __________________________________ EUFOR soldiers enjoy special rights in the discharge of their duties:
- They are not subject to "local" jurisdiction; - They enjoy immunity against arrest and imprisonment by the local law enforcement authorities; - They enjoy unrestricted freedom of movement in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia; - They are not obliged to keep their passports on them; - They are not liable to pay import duties, charges or fees.
They must comply with the following duties:
- They must abide by the local laws; - They must refrain from activities that are incompatible with the nature of their mission; - They must keep their EUFOR identity cards on them at any time; - They are obliged to produce their EUFOR identity card upon request of local authorities.
___________________________________ __________________________________ This article is republished by authorization of the EU Council Secretariat. Interview and article published in the ESDP Newsletter, no 1, December 2005.
The editors